Color Design ResourceS

This post explores traditional color theory during the period in which it reached its zenith: the late-nineteenth century through to the mid twentieth century. In this period, traditional color theory underpinned color creation and allocation across applied design, design of the built environment, and design education. 

A survey was conducted to examine the ways in which color was discussed and applied during this period. Using keywords, the survey involved a search of archival material. The findings support the assertion that traditional color theory played a key role in the design and architecture professions, and occurred within this context due to five main factors. One of these factors was the use of gouache in design ideation and conceptualization. The survey also found that constructs associated with traditional color theory provided a widely used lingua franca that underpinned communications relating to color application, reproduction and transfer across applied design, design for the built environment and design education prior to the emergence of computer-assisted design.

This is an excerpt from a paper to be presented at AIC2023, the annual conference of the International Color Association (AIC), Thailand, November 28 - December 2, 2023.

INTRODUCTION

“Color is less important than form, but casts over it a peculiar charm. If form is wrongly seen or falsely represented, we feel as though 'the foundations were shaken'; if the color is bad, we are simply disgusted”  (Rood, 1879, p306)¹.

This study posits that traditional color theory became prominent within a particular context and for specific purposes, and these have not been fully elucidated nor are they evident in recent analysis and critiques of this branch of color theory. To address this gap in the literature on color, this study investigated the broader context of traditional color theory during the mid-nineteenth century through to the mid-twentieth century. In addition, the purposes to which traditional color theory was applied were examined. While the origins of traditional color theory date back centuries, it is not a scientific or formalized color theory. Instead, it has been defined as “a fit-for-purpose amalgam of grounded practical theory, normative design theory, and constructivism. It is underpinned by practical rather than scientific concerns and features a range of constructs, principles, and linked axioms that are largely programmatic.² 

The characteristics that distinguish traditional color theory from other color theories include an ontological focus on pigment color in respect to color exploration and application in art, design, and architecture.^2-4 This branch of color theory also features epistemological traditions that differ from other color theories and, from a praxis perspective, it features color combination proposals which represent color strategies often utilized across art, applied design, and architecture.^2,5 Some early theorists also provided “color harmony” guidelines; however, this highly prescriptive approach was superseded by an approach characterized by color exploration and experimentation".^2,4-6

Criticism of traditional color theory has been summarized by four issues: (1) Three primary colors: red, yellow, and blue; (2) A simple hue circle or “color wheel” that is used to illustrate color relationships; (3) Simple rules to establish harmonious color combinations; and (4) The use of vague color categories or simple hue names to which meanings are attached such as “red is arousing”, “blue is calming”.⁷ However, this criticism represents a misconstrued interpretation of texts relevant to traditional color theory such as Itten (1961, 1970, 1975) and Albers (1963). Plus, this assessment lacks a practical understanding about the context within which traditional color theory was utilized both in the past as well as in contemporary practice. 

METHODOLOGY

This study involved a survey of relevant texts to examine the ways in which color was discussed and applied in the late nineteenth century through to the mid-twentieth century. Using archival material, over 156 texts and documents were examined including those relating color theory and color application in design and architectural design. 

Texts dated from the mid-nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century were examined. This timeframe was selected because this branch of color theory became more prominent in the mid-nineteenth century and it’s been suggested that traditional color theory had a renewed and dominant influence due to the Bauhaus and Johannes Itten, before and after World War II.^2,5,8

The survey included texts in the author’s library and libraries of the University of Sydney and University of NSW plus the extensive collections at Internet Archive, Project Gutenberg and similar. These digital libraries were established to ensure access to texts while acknowledging author copyright restrictions. The survey was extensive but not exhaustive because not all texts – especially obscure texts – are easily accessible or available. 

The survey used a keyword search and involved examining texts for references to color, color theory, traditional color theory, RYB color, color design, applied color, color application, design, architecture, industrial art, industrial design, design education. All references were noted and summarized, and these summaries were used to inform the generalized findings relevant to this study’s aims. The full list of references is available at: https://colordesignresources.com/resources/blog/7229925/reference-list

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The findings confirm that traditional color theory became more prominent from the mid-nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century and did so primarily due to five main factors, which are discussed in greater detail in the full paper for AIC2023.

This post will focus on the fourth of five factors: The use of gouache by designers and architects in design ideation, conceptualization, and colorways for applied design and design of the built environment. 

Gouache and its role in design ideation and conceptualization

During the mid-nineteenth century and early twentieth century (before the advent of computer-assisted design), design ideation and conceptualization by architects, and designers involved creating visual imagery by hand. To this end, design maquettes and renderings involved pencil, pen, ink, and watercolor or bodycolor paint, the latter substituted eventually by gouache. These methods were used to actualize intended designs for building, manufacturing, or printing.¹² 

Figure 1. William Morris designs (1877-86), gouache and pencil on paper alongside printed wallpapers. 

Examining texts, maquettes and renderings indicate that the use of gouache in tandem with RYB color and traditional color theory was prevalent at the time. In this context, gouache provided a highly useful medium due to its capacity to dry quickly, provide opaque color coverage plus large flat areas of color with hard borders between colors to enable clarity of design definition, and it also had the capacity to provide an immeasurable range of color nuances from a limited palette. 

Figure 2. Toulouse Lautrec designs (1891-93), gouache and ink on paper alongside printed posters.  

The exploratory approach that underpinned traditional color theory enabled design professionals to use gouache to quickly create full-color renderings and explore colorways and color allocation options. This design methodology enabled design professionals to evaluate different options and determine whether they were fit-for-purpose and effective in terms of legibility, attracting attention, and evolving aesthetic trends.

Figure 3. Gerrit Rietveld renderings of Rietveld Schröder House (1923), gouache on paper. 

The period after the industrial revolution witnessed a demand for goods from the burgeoning middle-class in tandem with a decline of design pattern books as a key source of inspiration for designers and architects.^9,10 This created a need for designers and architects to create and apply multiple, viable color strategies within the context of their design conceptualizations for the building, industry, and manufacturing sectors. 

Figure 4. Otto Baumberger designs (1932-35), gouache and pencil on paper alongside printed posters.  

For example, design sectors such as textile and fashion design required multiple colorways, and design professionals in these sectors were also required to create color variations that kept pace with evolving aesthetic trends. Color strategies embedded in traditional color theory provided an effective starting point for creating color solutions across both applied design and architecture. 

Figure 5. Herbert Bayer (1923), promotional and poster designs, gouache and graphite on paper.

Design professionals explored and experimented with color strategies for design projects using gouache and allocated color and color contrast according to design aims. In this context, color was strategically allocated to key design elements such as headlines, brand names, product design features or details. Color was often used to attract attention, enhance legibility and aesthetics, and encourage engagement across applied design and design of the built environment. Designers and architects often tested color options during the conceptualization phase to garner client feedback, ascertain responses to color allocation, and determine feasibility of color schemes. Gouache was ideal for these purposes.

Figure 6. Sonia Delaunay (1920s-1930s) - gouache textile designs

Rood’s declaration that “if the color is bad, we are simply disgusted” underpinned an ongoing need for effective color strategies that had the capacity to be varied as required for application across applied design and design of the built environment. The architect Frank Llyod Wright countered Rood’s declaration and suggested that “there is no bad color. No one color is better than another in itself, except as bad use is made of it or the quality of the color is itself poor”.¹³ To this end, Wright explored several façade color and design schemes including red (to link the museum façade to the red brick buildings close-by), stark white, blue glass, black marble, pink, and ivory, as illustrated in Figure 7.¹⁴

Figure 7. Frank Lloyd Wright (1948) - gouache renderings of Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum.^13,14

CONCLUSION

This study investigated the context within which traditional color theory evolved and became prominent during the mid-nineteenth century, reaching a highpoint in the mid-twentieth century. Survey findings suggest that traditional color theory became prominent during this era due to five main factors related specifically to contextual and practical considerations within applied design and design of the built environment.   

Prior to the emergence of computer-assisted design, traditional color theory in tandem with the use of gouache played a key role in color design conceptualization for design professionals and architects; plus, it served the purpose of providing strategies to address the complexity of color relevant to professional output. Finally, constructs embedded in traditional color theory underpinned color strategies used in praxis and provided a lingua franca for those concerned with color application.  

Figure 8. Raymond Loewy (1930s - 1960s) - gouache renderings of industrial designs.

REFERENCES

1. Rood, O. N. (1879). Modern chromatics, with applications to art and industry. New York: D. Apple. 
2. O’Connor, Z. (2021). Traditional colour theory: A review. Colour Research and Application, 46 (4), pp838-847.
3. Gage, J. (1995). Colour and culture. London: Thames and Hudson. 
4. Gage, J. (2000). Colour and Meaning: Art, Science and Symbolism. London: Thames & Hudson.
5. O’Connor Z. (2021). Traditional colour theory. In: Shamey R. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Colour Science and Technology. Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg.
6. Hard, A., & Sivik, L. (2001). A theory of colors in combination: A descriptive model related to the NCS color-order system. Color Research and Application, 26(1), pp4-28. 
7. Hirschler R., Briggs, D.J.C., Schwarz, A. & Westland, S. (2022), Contemporary analysis of traditional colour theory. Proceedings of the International Colour Association (AIC) Conference: Sensing Colour, Toronto (Canada), pp185-191.
8. Briggs. D.J.C. (2015). Traditional and Modern Colour Theory [Video]; Accessed June 2, 2020, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4enFjTGVTnc
9. Raizman, D. (2003). History of modern design. London: Laurence King.
10. De Noblet, J. (1993). Industrial design: Reflections of a century. Paris: Flammarion. 
11. Edwards, C. (2011). Interior Design: A Critical Introduction. Oxford: Berg Publishers. Accessed on February 24, 2023, from https://archive.org/details/interiordesigncr0000edwa/
12. Asagari, A. & Fathi, R. (2022). Examining the role of design tools in quality of ideation and presenting architectural designs. Bagh-e Nazar, 19 (113), pp99-116. 
13. United States Department of the Interior National Park Service (2005). National Register of Historic Places: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. Accessed March 12, 2022, from https://s3.amazonaws.com/NARAprodstorage/lz/electronic-records/rg-079/NPS_NY/05000443.pdf
14. Cilento, K. (2009). Compromises for the Guggenheim. Arch Daily, July 5, 2009. Accessed 12 March 2022, from https://www.archdaily.com/27786/compromises-for-the-guggenheim

ILLUSTRATION SOURCES

William Morris (1834-1896) - Designer/artist, England

William Morris (1877) ‘Chrysanthemum’ wallpaper design in gouache on paper. Accessible at https://wmgallery.org.uk/collection/explore-the-collection/

William Morris (1877) ‘Chrysanthemum’ wallpaper, William Morris and Company. https://wmgallery.org.uk/collection/explore-the-collection/

William Morris (1880), ‘Poppy’ or ‘Wreath’ wallpaper design in gouache on paper. Accessible at https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/16799/lot/15/

Morris and Company (1880), ‘Poppy’ wallpaper. Accessible at  https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/16799/lot/15/

William Morris (1886), ‘Lily and Pomegranate’ wallpaper design in gouache on paper. Accessible at https://wmgallery.org.uk/collection/explore-the-collection/

William Morris (1886). ‘Lily and Pomegranate’ wallpaper, Morris and Company Accessible at https://wmgallery.org.uk/collection/explore-the-collection/

Henri Marie de Toulouse Lautrec (1864-1901) - Artist, France

Toulouse Lautrec (1891). Poster design, La Goulue, gouache and pencil on paper. Accessible at https://wikioo.org/en/paintings.php?refarticle=8EWHXQ

Toulouse Lautrec (1891). Poster, La Goulue, lithograph. Accessible at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lautrec_moulin_rouge,_la_goulue_(poster)_1891.jpg

Toulouse Lautrec (1892). Poster design ‘Ambassadeurs, Aristide Bruant’, gouache on cardboard. Accessible at https://fineartbiblio.com/artworks/henri-de-toulouse-lautrec/6439/ambassadeurs-aristide-bruant

Toulouse Lautrec (1892). Poster design, ‘Ambassadeurs Aristide Bruant’, lithograph, Art Institute of Chicago. Accessible at https://www.artic.edu/artworks/63620/ambassadeurs-aristide-bruant

Toulouse Lautrec (1893). Jane Avril dancing, gouache and charcoal on paper. Accessible at http://impressionistsgallery.co.uk/artists/Artists/tuv/Toulouse%20Lautrec/92-93.html

Toulouse Lautrec (1893). Jane Avril dancing, gouache on card. Accessible at https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2020/impressionist-modern-art-london/henri-de-toulouse-lautrec-jane-avril

List of Drawings, watercolours and gouaches by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec accessible at https://www.wga.hu/html_m/t/toulouse/7/index.html

Gerrit Reitveld (1888-1964) - Architect/furniture designer, The Netherlands

Gerrit Rietveld (1923). Architectural renderings of the Rietveld Schröder House, gouache on paper. https://www.centraalmuseum.nl/en

Herbert Bayer (1900-1985) - Graphic designer/architect, Austria (Bauhaus)/America

Herbert Bayer (1923). Promotional and poster designs, gouache and graphite on paper. https://www.moma.org/artists/399

Herbert Bayer (1930). Architectural renderings, Apartment House Communal Rooms for Werkbund Exhibition, Paris, ink, wash, and gouache over graphite on paper.  https://thecharnelhouse.org/2014/04/01/object-lessons-from-the-bauhaus/herbert-bayer-apartment-house-communal-rooms-for-werkbund-exhibition-paris-1930-interior-perspective-view-of-bar-from-pool-1930-drawing-german-20th-century-ink-wash-and-gouache-over-graphite-o/

Otto Baumberger (1889-1961) - Artist, Switzerland

Otto Baumberger (1935), Interlaken poster, gouache on paper. Accessible at  https://www.emuseum.ch/objects/63275/interlaken

Otto Baumberger (1935). Interlaken travel poster lithograph printed by Fretz A.G., Zurich. Accessible at https://www.galerie123.com/en/original-vintage-poster/39675/interlaken-suisse-sejours-ideal-avril-octobre/

Otto Baumberger (1932). Davos travel poster design, gouache on paper. Accessible at https://www.emuseum.ch/objects/63107

Otto Baumberger (1932). Davos travel poster lithograph. https://gt-walsheim.com/

Otto Baumberger (1933). Simplon Line travel poster design, gouache on paper. Accessible at https://gt-walsheim.com/

Otto Baumberger (1933). Simplon Line travel poster lithograph. https://gt-walsheim.com/

Frank Lloyd Wright (1876-1959) - Architect, America

Frank Lloyd Wright (1948-1949), color variations, Solomon R Guggenheim Museum, gouache on paper. 

Cilento, K. (2009). Compromises for the Guggenheim. Arch Daily, July 5, 2009. Accessed 12 March 2022, from https://www.archdaily.com/27786/compromises-for-the-guggenheim/

Rose, J. Frank Lloyd Wright. Artforum, October 2017. Accessed on May 22, 2023, accessible at https://www.archdaily.com/27786/compromises-for-the-guggenheim/

https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/08/arts/frank-lloyd-wright-at-150-moma.html/

Sonia Delaunay (1885-1979) - Artist/Designer, France

Textile designs, gouache on paper - Artnet and Dwell Magazine. 

Raymond Loewy (1893-1986) - Industrial designer, France/America

Industrial designs, gouache on paper - MoMA, Artnet. 

About the author - Dr Zena O’Connor established Design Research Associates in 2006 and has focussed on evidence-based color strategies, insight, and recommendations for applied design and the built environment. Zena has completed numerous color design projects across commercial, residential and the healthcare and aged care sectors. A designer by training, Zena’s PhD research investigated color in the built environment (Faculty of Architecture, Design & Planning, University of Sydney). She has developed and taught university courses (Sydney University, University of NSW and Sydney Design School) and published 70+ peer-reviewed academic articles on color in applied design and the built environment.  https://zenaoconnor.com